It's Not All Just Mesopotamia

What comes to mind when you think of the Ancient Near East? For many, initial perceptions of the Near East may include cities from the Bible, the cradle of civilization, and the Code of Hammurabi, but for most people, the expansive region of Mesopotamia comes to mind. While it can be tempting to amalgamate all of the cultures of the Ancient Near East into “Mesopotamia,” the reality remains that each culture from the Ancient Near East had its own distinct backgrounds, societal structures, and art styles as well. 

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Ancient Near Eastern civilizations essentially began with the Sumerian civilization in 4000 BCE. Ancient Sumer sparked a transitional period from prehistoric art to ancient art with the advent of a writing system consisting of cuneiform script on wet clay tablets. Ancient Sumerian society was mainly concerned with agricultural affairs, which is reflected in clay tablets from the period, consisting mainly of agro-economic transactions of crops and animals. Farming and animal domestication are what often advance civilization and lead to complex urban centers. More sophisticated methods of farming allow for a surplus of food production, allowing individuals to partake in other activities that are not just hunting and gathering in order to survive.

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One of the most significant pieces of art from Ancient Sumerian culture is the Standard of Ur, which was created around 3000 BCE. The Standard of Ur was created in the influential Sumerian city of Ur and is thought to have been used as a military standard. The piece is created from two wooden panels. The piece contains a scene depicting war on one side and peace on the other, and is divided into three registers on each side. The agricultural society of Sumer can be seen on the “peace side” which depicts men carrying crops on their shoulders and leading donkeys. However, the “war side” of the Standard of Ur reveals the militarist aspects of Sumerian culture, as the same donkeys that contributed to agricultural production also trample foreign enemies. In this way, Ancient Sumer connects the agricultural focus of their culture to other parts of society as well.

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Ancient Akkadian culture began in about 2000 BCE, near the time when Ancient Sumer fell. The Akkadian civilization was founded by Sargon of Akkad, and Akkadian culture emphasized the power of the monarchy and the dynasty of the Akkadian kings. This was a theme inspired by Sumerian art. For example, the Standard of Ur features the Sumerian King larger than the other figures, breaking the decorative border around the registers, demonstrating the king’s power and authority. However, Akkadian art takes this recurring idea from Sumerian art and expands on it in a significant way by truly dramatizing the influence and dominance of the king. In one extremely notable piece of Akkadian art named the “Victory Stele of Naram-Sin,” one can see Naram-Sin, the great-grandson of Sargon of Akkad, victorious over the Lullubi people. Whereas Sumerian art utilized a subtle hierarchy of scale that only slightly emphasized the size of the king, Naram-Sin significantly towers over the rest of the figures and appears to be twice or three times larger than the Akkadian soldiers and foreign enemies alike. In addition, Akkadian art breaks from the tradition of using registers to separate the scenes present in Sumerian art. Instead, Akkadian art uses diagonal lines of figures to guide the viewer’s eyes.

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After the Akkadian civilization, two other Near Eastern cultures followed in succession: the Canaanites, who arose alongside the Akkadians near 2000 BCE, and the Hittites, who appeared around 1500 BCE. Canaanite society fought many battles against the Egyptians. As a result of these frequent interactions, Canaanite art was Egyptianizing and referenced Egyptian artistic styles, such as the use of gold jewelry and Egyptian faience bead necklaces. On the other hand, Hittite art mainly looked back to the artistic traditions of the Sumerians. For example, Hittite art also included cuneiform writing on clay tablets. However, the Hittites were also skilled charioteers, and the Hittite tradition of chariot racing greatly influenced their art. This is shown in relief carvings of Hittite art that illustrate archers sitting atop a war chariot driven by horses.

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Ancient Babylon drew inspiration from Ancient Akkadian art’s depiction of kings and the Akkadian connection to the Gods but departed from the rest of the art of Near Eastern cultures after being conquered by the Assyrian King Nebuchadnezzar II. While one could argue that Ancient Babylonian art is characterized by its emphasis on blending legal themes with artistic ones, this characterization is limited. One could point to the Stele of Hammurabi’s division between carved relief images at the top intertwined with cuneiform script inscriptions at the bottom, but this would not capture all of the art from Ancient Babylon. The reality remains that after Nebuchadnezzar II conquered Ancient Babylon around 600 BCE, the art from Babylon changed drastically. Nebuchadnezzar II ushered in a wave of Neo-Babylonian art, marked by grand and enormous artistic pieces. The Ishtar Gates from the 500s BCE demonstrates this characteristic of Neo-Babylonian art, as the Ishtar Gates were nearly 40 feet high and decorated with fearsome beasts. The Ishtar Gates features fearsome lions that are placed in a linear and controlled sequence, demonstrating Nebuchadnezzar II’s grand power. 

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This idea of power and intimidation from Neo-Babylonian Art seeped into Ancient Assyrian art, but Ancient Assyrian art emphasized a strong purpose of intimidation. Ancient Assyria was an entirely militaristic culture and society ruled by warrior kings. Ancient Assyria was known to terrorize opponents after conquering them, and Ashurbaniapl, one of the most prominent Ancient Assyrian kings, wrote on an Assyrian cuneiform tablet that “I captured many troops alive: I cut off of some their arms [and] hands; I cut off of others their noses, ears, [and] extremities.” Thus, it makes sense that most of the art from Ancient Assyria reflected these conceptions of power, martial ruthlessness, and political dominance. In fact, some stone reliefs from Ancient Assyria portrayed detached body parts, such as heads hanging from trees. One of the most important features of Ancient Assyrian art was the lamassu, winged bulls with the heads of men, that were placed near the gates and entrances of the city. The lamassu reflect the militaristic culture of Ancient Assyria with their enormous size and fearsome depictions, emphasizing their strength. For instance, the pair of lamassu found at the citadel of Sargon II display extreme detail on the muscles, bones, and protruding veins of their legs. To amplify the effect of intimidating foreign dignitaries visiting the Assyrian King, the lamassu were also placed upon a base that featured a cuneiform inscription praising the Assyrian king’s power and wishing demise onto his enemies. 

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Ancient Persian art, on the other hand, was marked primarily by a blend of cultures. This reflected the fact that Ancient Persian kings and rulers allowed conquered nations to continue their cultural practices and traditions as long as they paid a tax to the Persian monarchy. Akin to the shifts in the art of Ancient Babylon, Ancient Persian art had dynamic and evolving styles. The transitions in power in Persia are reflected in its art, and Ancient Persian art shifted from the changes in power from the Achaemenid Empire to the Parthians to the Sasanians. The Achaemenid Empire placed a large emphasis on large architectural monuments that demonstrated the artistic prowess of the nation. For example, Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire, demonstrated the artistic accomplishments of the Persian Empire. Persepolis was a palatial complex, and the most eminent portion of the structure was the apadana, or great hall. Persepolis’s apadana featured relief processions of conquered nations paying tribute to the king, columns that had dual bullhead capitals, repeating motifs of a lion biting a bull, and icons of Ancient Persia’s Zoroastrian religion. The art from Persepolis demonstrates the idiosyncratic nature of Persia with its desire to stand apart from other cultures. Rather than subjugating other nations, the processional frieze depicting annual processions to the king demonstrates unity and harmony underneath the empire. The double bullhead columnal capitals departed dramatically from the Ancient Greek Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian capitals, and were truly unique to the culture of Ancient Persia and reflected how Ancient Persians viewed the bull as one of the most powerful animals. The motifs of the lion and bull reflect the symbolism of the Persians defeating similarly powerful foreign nations, as both the lion and bull were thought to be incredibly powerful animals. Finally, reliefs and stone carvings depicting the faravahar, a symbol of Zoroastrianism, were also present at Persepolis. It is important to note that many of the artistic traditions of Ancient Persia were inspired by previous styles as well. For example, Ancient Assyrian art often used designs resembling the faravahar with a man placed in a winged sun. Thus, it is most likely that Ancient Persian art appropriated this symbol from Ancient Assyria as a part of Ancient Persian culture, which reflected its tolerance and acceptance of the art and culture from conquered nations. Persian art continued to change in the Parthian period by departing from architectural monuments and moving towards frontal depictions of kings, nobles, and deities. Sasanian art looked back to the composite and profile views found in Achaemenid art, and this can be seen in the coins from the Sasanian period. Similar to the Achaemenid Empire, Sasanian art also looked at larger architectural monuments, and the Sasanians often made art through reliefs on nearby mountains, such as the stone reliefs on Taq-e-Bostan in the Zagros Mountains. 

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Each Ancient Near Eastern culture had its own societal structures, and this was reflected in its art. Whether it be the agricultural society of Ancient Sumer, the militaristic culture of Ancient Assyria, or the tolerant societal structure of Ancient Persia, each culture had its own viewpoint on the best way to rule their kingdoms and empires. By analyzing the different styles of art from each of these civilizations, we learn more about how these cultures interacted with each other and shared some artistic styles and how they also departed from each other in unique ways. So, the next time you hear someone refer to Ancient Mesopotamian art, be sure to ask them which ancient culture they’re actually referring to.

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(Cover Image: Kahn Academy)